EARLY TRANSFORMATION AND ENLIGHTENMENT OF THE CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE BRITISH CONCESSION IN MODERN EAST ASIA RESEARCH ON 1866 LAND REGULATIONS OF THE BRITISH CONCESSION OF TIENTSIN

The systematic development of British Concession in the 19th century had a profound impact on the development of cities in the history of modernization in East Asia. To find out the relevance of the urban management system of the British concession and the process of urban modernization between different cities in East Asia, this paper combs the development process of land allocation and urban management in the early British concession by using the land regulation. It focuses on the specific case of the 1866 land regulation promulgated by the British concession in Tianjin from the perspective of colonialism and the construction and management system of the East Asian British concession. It analyses the historical background and influence, then further explores the reasons for its promulgation. This finding can fill part of the vacancy in the history of urban development and play an important role in the development of contemporary urban construction in East Asia as reflection and reference.


INTRODUCTION
China is in a stage of accelerating urbanization and expanding the scale of cities. However, in the urban management model, there are still problems such as imperfect law formulation, low level of democratization of urban management, and ineffective planning and supervision system (Shengcai, S., Shuai H., 2020). In the 19th century, the emergence of the "concession" made the planning and management of the Chinese traditional to modern western planning ideas. In urban planning, construction and control are its two major starting points, and control is the main task of the planning authority (Ying Z., 2014). Studying the construction laws and regulations of the concession has some enlightenment for the current construction management.
In the 19th century, European powers opened the East Asian market through trade and indirectly promoted the modernization of East Asian cities. Westerners established colonies, concessions, settlements, etc. in East Asian countries through mission, trade, and diplomacy (1) . Introduce modern city (1) Chapters 9 and 11 of Fei Chengkang's "History of Chinese Concessions" divide the land occupied by foreigners into concessions, leased land, summer resorts, foreign residence areas, shopping malls, etc.; It said the difference between the concession and other types is whether there are foreigners Infringement of local administrative power; By the way, word "settlement" as English generally refers to various areas where foreigners reside in concessions. Regarding the residences and concessions in China and Japan, Yuzo Kato proposed the same name in English as settlement. In China, it is called concession; and in Japan, it is called settlements for foreigners; and analyzed its political and economic differences. Both Chinese concessions and Japanese foreigners' settlement have infringements on local administrative rights by foreigners, and corresponding land regulations have been promulgated. In addition, the relevance of Chinese characters within Asia reflects the management system, advanced municipal construction, and western culture to East Asia. Britain. As the sun never sets Empire at that time, England was the country with the earliest, largest number, longest duration, and greatest influence in concession. It took the lead in establishing a series of concession systems (Chengkang F., 1991). The British Concession is the focus of the study on the modernization of East Asian cities. The "Land Regulations", which is the foundation of concession governance, contains relevant rules for urban planning and construction. It is the institutional basis for the modernization of East Asian cities.
clearly outline the evolution of the "Land Regulations" in the British Concession in East Asia. By combing through relevant historical archives, this article puts Tianjin ' s 1866 "Land Regulations" under the historical background of British colonization in East Asia, explores the reasons for its formulation, discusses its particularity. Then further sorts out the process of colonial modernization in the British concessions in East Asia, and the development of the urban management contexts.

British East Asian development model in the early concession
In the early days of the British trade with modern East Asia, it was established Concessions and settlements in Shanghai (1843), Amoy (1852), Nagasaki (1858), Yokohama (Kanagawa) (1858), Canton (1859) and Tianjin (1860) (Figure 1). Concessions, as a special form of colonization formed in East Asia, were insignificant in the formation of the British Empire. Although with the development of the concession, the British began joint activities with the Chinese in the concession. However, because the British who came to the concession initially were mainly the British who traded overseas, the establishment of the concession was also based on white colonies. The settlement of the colonial policy had an impact on the construction and management of the concession. Under the influence of the new concept of Empire, the British people generally believe that the overseas concessions have imposed a burden on the British economy and hope to obtain the autonomy of the British concessions as soon as possible (Benying Z., 2009).

"Land Regulations" Establishment and Development
In the 1860s, The emergence of "Little England" (3) further promoted the colonial reform and self-government movement (Bentao W., 2009). The concession as a "state within a country" corresponds to the establishment of the Municipal Council and the formation of Resident self-government system in the "Land Regulations". The colonists fought fiercely for the management and autonomy of the land. It created neither the "gratis possession" that was completely equivalent to the colony, nor the "civil rent" among Asian natives; instead, it produced a land lease method and land management system similar to that between countries--"Land Regulations". Concession planning is the process of realizing the redistribution of land and making it legal. The regulation defines the way of renting land by tenants, the main body of urban planning, the source of funds for concession construction, and urban public health control, etc., in order to achieve the purpose of construction and management of concessions, similar to today's " Act of urban planning." Each formulation or revision of these "Land Regulations" does not start from scratch, but is based on the social conditions and management experience at that time (Table 1). "Land Regulations" revision of the course is the British continued to strengthen its self-governance rights and improve the process of concession of public infrastructure, but also its constantly adapt to changes in the process of modernization of the historical process of urban development in East Asia. Before the establishment of the "Land Regulations", the foreigners who came to the concessions or settlements were mainly large foreign firms. In 1844 Dent Matheson was the first in the Huangpu River shore to lease 13 acres of land, followed by Jardine Matheson. After these foreign banks leased the land, they built warehouses, offices, factories, etc. on their respective plots, forming the initial concession port space (Bund) (4) . Initially, the "Land Regulations" was established to solve the problem of chaotic land lease, and gradually formed a "perpetual lease system" (5) . With the development of the concession, the content of urban management gradually appeared in the land regulation, which gradually clarified the main body of urban planning and the principle of public participation. Such as the 1845 Shanghai the first "Land Regulations" of the British concession of urban control is mainly reflected in the construction space control (6) , Relevant road planning (paragraphs2,3 and 4), land function division (7) . In addition to extending the construction space control part (paragraphs 1 and 6) of the land regulation of 1845 (paragraphs 1 and 6), the Shanghai "Land Regulations" of 1854 emphasized the construction of municipal public infrastructure with roads as the core (paragraph 5). Provisions on building materials and constructions (paragraph 9). In addition, in accordance with the tenth "selection of three or more people", the committee on Roads and Jetties in the concession formally withdrew from the historical stage. They replaced it with a formal administrative agency-The Municipal Council, which has since determined the main body of urban construction management and control. This is the institutional basis for the zoning of public infrastructure and urban functional layout in the concession.  (4) The plan adopts basic rules, uniform narrow and deep plot division method, and a geometric road grid system. The narrow and deep plot shape of the waterfront is conducive to the maximum efficient use of the river dam Bund and street space, which is convenient for improving the efficiency of lease and use.

Historical research in the context of urban economics and urban sociology.
Through the study of archives and rare British and Japanese historical sources, as well as a review of previous research, the scope and objectives of the study will be established. Identify the specific provisions of early land charters, collect correspondence from key figures, the similarities and differences in the land development activities of British bourgeoisie in the context of the different charters, and explore their impact on urban space.

Collation of historical maps and plot data.
The collection of maps of the settlement in historical sources and archives from different periods, the collation of basic information on the land parcels of the Sino-Japanese and British concessions and settlements in various eras, and the sorting out of the process of land management by the concession authorities through the Land Register and the Directory, etc.

Comparative analysis under the British Concession system
To compare and contrast the similarities and differences in the content of the land charters enacted in different periods, to compare and analyse the reasons for these similarities and differences, and to sort out the historical lineage of the development of the land charters of the British Concessions and the Residency in early East Asia from a holistic perspective.

The emergence of the Tianjin "land regulation" and its historical position
Tianjin British concession "Land Regulations" in 1866 served as a link between the past and future of the early development of the East Asia Department in the British Concession. As the largest British concession in East Asia, the establishment of Tianjin British Concession has two meanings in the history of modern Chinese urban construction. One is the first time that the United Kingdom has leased land in the form of "state rent" in the East Asian concession in the form of a treaty permit, allowing the United Kingdom to realize the overall plan of the concession (the Gordon Plan in 1861), which determines the basic urban spatial form of the concession. The second is it is the first time in the regulations to accept the rights of the committee of land renters and Municipal Council, which is the starting point of concession self-government legalization. Due to the impact of taxation on its municipal construction, Tianjin British Concession has gradually formed a concession development and construction model dominated by wealthy British businessmen. This model has a huge impact on the construction of urban space and municipal infrastructure in the concession. After the establishment of the "Land Regulations" in Tianjin in 1866, the "Land Regulations" and municipal regulations of the British Concession in East Asia began to be gradually legalized, and various institutional systems were continuously improved. In addition, other countries' concessions in Tianjin basically borrowed from the management system of the British concession in Tianjin and promoted the modernization of Tianjin.

The specific influence to the urban construction management mode of Tianjin 1866 "land regulations"
The 1866 "Land Regulations" of the British Concession in Tianjin is the full name "1866 Land Regulations of the British Concession of Tientsin and General Regulations. for the Tientsin Consular District". Including a total of 23, covering the scope of the concession, qualification of land renters, the committee of land renters, executive committee or council and the electoral vote, donate terms of taxes and licenses, and so on (Keyan G., 2014). The regulations on land lease methods and construction management methods have directly affected the urban planning of the British concessions. They have undergone major changes compared with the previous "Land Regulations".

Changes and impacts of rental land:
For the first time, the land lease in the British Concession of Tianjin adopted the "national lease" method. Since the " Treaty of Nanking" and "Supplementary Treaty" in 1843 determined that foreigners obtained the right of residence in the concession by way of leased land. (8) In the "Land Regulations" of Shanghai in 1845 and 1854, the method of foreign businessmen renting land directly from the original owners was adopted, that is, "civil rent" in the usual sense, and the permanent rent system was gradually established. The foreign settlements in Japan were initially invested and constructed by the shogunate, so the renters directly paid the rent to the Japanese government. (9) In 1858, the Japanese government privately changed the port of opening from Kanagawa to Yokohama, and started construction activities. (10) In less than a year, the land in Yokohama was occupied by the first foreign merchants, and the supply of land was in short supply. Sir Rutherford Alcock, the Minister in Japan, tries to manage land ownership. (11) In the fifth year after the opening of the port (1863), the number of land in the settlement was officially divided, and the land allocation plan was re-established.
After operating in Shanghai and Japan's concessions, the British government learned from the governance experience of Indian colonies in order to avoid the troubles of landlords bidding up land prices and refusing to lease land when renting the land. (12) Not only regards its territory as the national land represented by the King of England, but also implements the land ownership system of the country represented by the King of England in the colonies occupied by it (Zhengshu C., 1996) in December 1860, Bruce envoy to Prince Gong Yi submit a note (Archives Department of Tianjin Archives, Nankai University Branch Campus., 1992) , to manage concessions in China to take "national rent" approach, That is, the British Majesty is directly authorized to rent a whole piece of land to the Chinese government as a special rental, and then the British Majesty will re-allocate the land to the British businessmen. In addition, the (8) "The Chinese magistrate must discuss with the British governor on the local people's conditions, the place, the house or the base to be used, and the rent shall be for the quasi-British people; the rental price must be based on the current value of the five people, so as to ensure peace. Yun." For details, see Wang Tieya: "Compilation of Chinese and Foreign Old Testament Chapters", Volume 1, Sanlian Bookstore, 1957Bookstore, , reprinted in 1982 For details, please refer to the "Land Regulations port of Yokohama" and the sixth paragraph of the "Land Regulations port of Nagasaki ". The historical materials are all from the historical diplomatic materials of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs. British government is usually not a permanent right to use the land given to foreign investors, according to the Special Committee in 1857, the Bank of England's "Annual Report", the land lease period in most parts of the West, mostly 99 years. Foreign concession lease period for the same 99 years. This is similar to the actual operation of the British and Western real estate markets at that time. The original intention was that the British government could profit from the appreciation of land prices during the turnover of leasehold rights (Marx, Engels., 1972).
"National Rent" forms make the land ownership of the rental in the British government. It strengthens the British government's control over the operation and construction of the land in the concession. The British government was able to take the method of auction and sublet the land in the concession to various foreign firms and merchants, turning the land from feudalowned real estate into freely tradeable urban real estate (Keqiang S., Haiyan L., 1996). The rapid commercialization of land stimulated investment and land development in the concessions. At the same time, after the concession authorities obtained the right of permanent lease, they also developed a master plan for the British concession in Tianjin. In 1861, the Gordon Plan was divided into plots according to the plan (see Figure 2), and the city had overall control.   (Oto Y., 1970). This further clarified the rules and administrative system of concession autonomy on the basis of Shanghai's 1854 "land regulations". But in 1865, due to financial problems, the Residents ' Corps had to return the management power to the Japanese government.
There are 23 paragraphs in the 1866 "Land Regulations" of the British Concession in Tianjin (Godfrey E.P. Hertslet, ed., 1908), 11 of which are directly related to the autonomy and administrative management of the concession, which accounts for one-half of the entire regulation. It can be divided into two categories, including the establishment of urban management agencies (paragraphs 4, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14) and related rights of administrative agencies (paragraphs 8, 9, 10, 11, 15). The regulation for the first time formed a systematic British Concession Autonomous System, that is, under the electoral registration and publicity system, through the convening of the annual general meeting of electors of the British municipal area in Tientsin, the executive committee of the Tianjin British Concession was established. The executive committee is responsible for revising of the charter of the concession, hiring a staff of the Ministry of Industry, buying and selling public property, collecting taxes, operating public equipment, etc (Masuda T., 1980). This is the first time that the concession has recognized the existence of the Municipal Council in the form of law, and the self-government model of the concession has been formally formed since then.
As a result, urban management and control under the autonomy of the concession have been formed. The regulations related to urban construction in the charter mainly include defining the scope of construction (paragraphs 1, 5), clarifying the planning of road-based public land (paragraph 5), Emphasize public safety (paragraphs 17, 18), and functional zoning of land use (including storage area (paragraph 19) and transportation land (paragraphs 20). On this basis, the regulation emphasized the source of funds for municipal activities. In addition to housing donations and land taxes, it also gives the committee of land renters the right to pursue fines. This part of the fine will be used for the municipal construction of the concession (paragraph 21). At the same time, the various costs for construction will be disclosed in advance each year to protect the private property rights of the people in Tianjin. This is a subject of urban planning. Tenant pays rent to the Majesty government (with the auctioneer-style leased to the highest bidder). The lessee needs to fulfill various obligations, including undertaking various fees levied by the committee of land renters for laying drainage facilities, repairing roads or decorating street lights for the concession, building public entertainment venues, and setting up police agencies.

DISCUSSION
In order to find the relevance of the urban management system of the British concession in East Asia and the similarity of the process of modernization of East Asian cities, and to explore the guiding experience of urban management policies, it is necessary to explore the motivation of the formulation of the regulations. Generally speaking, the formulation of land policy stems from the changes and development of social, political, economic and other factors. In the study of cities and architecture, the famous cultural anthropologist Lapub emphasized in the book "Humanistic Aspects of Urban Form", The essence of the urban physical environment lies in the organization of the space, rather than the material aspects such as the shape and materials of the surface. Culture, system, psychology, etiquette, religious beliefs and lifestyle play an important role in this. If we want to explore the reasons for the formation of the urban space in the concession, we must have the continuity of the urban culture, and renew the research method of cultural ecology from the social, institutional, and cultural aspects. (13) By studying the formation of systems and regulations, besides the social background of the concession at that time, the fundamental reason for the formation of the space is further confirmed. (Figure 3).

The adjustment of British foreign policy towards China
The change in British foreign policy in 1865 led to a change in the official Chinese attitude towards the autonomy of the concession, which largely affected the urban construction system in the concession. Britain has experienced European (13) Cultural Ecology is a new type of discipline developed with scientism and humanism from separation, confrontation to integration in the mid-20th century. It was first proposed by American scholar Juliar Haynes Steward in "Theory of Culture Change": Cultural ecology mainly studies the interaction between culture and environment, and has the advantages of interdisciplinary research. Emphasize that the interaction between humans and nature depends on the cultural environment The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XLVI-M-1-2021 28th CIPA Symposium "Great Learning & Digital Emotion", 28 August-1 September 2021, Beijing, China Mercantilism from the 17th to the 18th centuries. After the independence of North America in 1783, the First Empire disintegrated, and the New Empire Second Empire was established in 1815. It began to grant its representative government to the white colonies and changed the previous plundering policy. After the second half of the 18th century, the British Empire policy by Adam Smith's colonial theory influence, began to expand trade around the world, from the Americas to the East (Jiahong G., 2007). In the early 19th century, with the abolition of the Corn Law in 1846 and the Navigation Regulations in 1849, a period of free trade began. During this period, the Little England, represented by the Manchester School, emphasizing respect for colonial sovereignty and the principles of liberalism, efficiency, and peaceful diplomacy was also formed. It reached its peak between 1860 and 1870 (Ying Z., 2014). Regulations made for any such purpose as aforesaid before the commencement of this Order."(FO371/34) The right to manage local affairs in the central government emphasizes the necessity of central and government management, which is similar to the way of urban governance in the UK at that time. This also indirectly recognizes that the rights of the Municipal Council are granted by the British government.
"…in which the sources and extent of the powers vested in them should appear clothed in legal phraseology, and in that completeness of form which should characterize every perfect system of self-government…" (15)

British urban governance reform
The 19th century was a period of change in urban governance in the UK. After the first industrial revolution in Britain, the social structure has undergone tremendous changes. Population, industry and commerce have gathered in cities and towns, and the process of urbanization has accelerated. Between 1811 and 1861, the scale of urbanization in Britain has achieved unprecedented development (Weifang L., 1998). The middle class continues to increase. Due to the pursuit of political status by the upper middle class, urban management has gradually moved towards democracy, evolving from urban oligarchy to elected municipal organs. Through the parliamentary reform in 1832, the middle class began to take advantage of the parliament. As far as the jurisdiction of urban governance is concerned, the Urban Self-Government Act of 1835 is largely symbolic, emphasizing the formation of a city government through elections, which is composed of the city council, the mayor and the city council. Corresponding to the British concession are land renters' meeting, chairman of the board, and the committee of land renters.
In 1848, the United Kingdom issued the first "Public Health Act" in response to various urban diseases that emerged after the Industrial Revolution, placing public health under state supervision, creating a precedent for the central government to intervene in local affairs and solve urban problems. It first advocated the establishment of a central sanitation committee to carry out the necessary cleaning, paving, sewage and water supply work. However, the legislation at that time was not mandatory, but was implemented voluntarily by local authorities. Until 1850, the term municipal utility began to appear. In 1855, the Metropolitan Engineering Bureau was elected to improve the capital's infrastructure. It was in the 1860s that the focus of the British government shifted to municipal administration, and the quality and quantity of municipal activities changed significantly.

Influence of important people
The implementation of the policies of foreign powers often requires specific historical opportunities or the advancement of important figures. After the First Opium War in 1842, Britain and China reached the "Five-Port Treaty of Commerce" for the first time. At this time, the British colonial relationship with China was experimental, so that the consuls appointed to these five ports were hurriedly selected without special training. Because the early consuls were far away from the British government, they mainly relied on their own resources to manage the concessions, and their personal consciousness had a greater impact on the management of the concessions and the advancement of the colony (Michie A., 1900), Rutherford Alcock (1807~1897) (16) is one of them ( Figure 3). After the signing of the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 and the Treaty of Beijing in 1860, Britain made further demands on the diplomatic, consular and judicial affairs of East Asia. Chinese consuls began to be regarded as special occupations, and entry into the post required relevant examinations. At the same time, by absorbing the experience of the first batch of managers, the United Kingdom began to expand the concessions throughout East Asia, which also made the construction of East Asian concessions and settlements have certain rules and similarities.:  an advanced culture (Masuda T., 1980). His exploration of the management of Japanese settlements was groundbreaking. He successively promulgated a series of inherited "Land Regulations" in Yokohama, Nagasaki, Kobe and other places. He also signed the "Yokohama Settlement Letters" at the same time. Provisions are made for foreigners to manage the land tax on their own. Although his attempt in Japan ended in failure (18) , with his previous management experience in the Sino-Japanese concession, he held greater ambitions as the minister in China. The tenants in the Shanghai concession gained the hope of increasing the power of municipal management and began to re-formulate the land regulations (United States., 1868).
Renters in Shanghai have tried to amend the land regulations since 1863. After Alcock appointment, all revisions have been confirmed with him ( Figure 5). (19) In July 1866, the Tenant's Conference passed a newly revised draft. Winchester resubmitted to Alcock audit, Alcock reply on November 15. He emphasized the necessity of amending the land regulations, clarifying that the objectives of this amendment are: " The adoption of a practical scheme of municipal government for one of the largest and most important cosmopolitan settlements in the east" Although it may not be exactly the same as similar institutions in the UK and have a more complete system, it must ensure effective control of the municipality. Secondly, Alcock emphasized the authority of this municipal organization: "the chief objects of municipal government were intended to be provided for, and in the calling together of the land renters to declare an assessment and impose dues, and the appointment of an executive committee to levy and apply the funds raised, the essential forms of municipal government were adhered to " Emphasize that this is a matter of principle, and mention: "…the inability complained of by successive municipal administrations to give effect to the votes of the land 'renters (18) In 1866 , due to the financial crisis, the management of the Yokohama settlement was returned to the shogunate during the Doryya Fire Incident 1866. The municipal funding for the Yokohama settlement was provided by the Kanagawa local government from beginning to end. This was also destined for the Yokohama settlement. The diaspora cannot be fully autonomous. (19) which in February 1866, Winchester to Alcock letters about amending the land regulations, reported in April to discuss the memorandum of land renters' meeting and in July reported on the progress of the amend of land regulations again, FO228 / 412,413 and the most necessary measures for the peace, order and sanitary state of the settlement…" (FO 228/413).
Finally, Alcock proposed the most important step for passing these resolutions, which is best to use the official approval of the Land Regulations as the legal basis (FO 228/413). On November 26, which is 11 days later, Alcock took the lead in promulgating Tianjin's Land Regulations, which were similar in content to the third land regulations submitted by Shanghai to Alcock in 1866. Tianjin's 1866 land charter is the first attempt by Alcock to directly apply his experience in the management of the Sino-Japanese concession to the British concession. It directly refers to the third land charter of Shanghai in 1866.

CONCLUSION
Tianjin's 1866 land regulations was affected by the adjustment of the British dialogue foreign policy, and were closely related to the transformation of British urban governance. Especially, it was inseparable from the key role played by Alcock, who had served as consul and minister in China and Japan. The experience in the management of the Sino-Japanese concession was directly applied to the first attempt to manage the British concession. It was directly affected by the construction management system of Shanghai and Japanese foreign settlements. It has an important influence on the construction management system of other foreign concessions in Tianjin and the management system of the British concessions and settlements in East Asia.
This article analyses the historical process of the formulation of Tianjin's 1866 land regulations. It explores the relevance of the management system of the British concessions in East Asia and the similarity of the process of modernization of East Asian cities. The construction management system of the concession period has played an important reference role for Shanghai, Tianjin, Yokohama, Nagasaki and subsequent urban construction. It is an inseparable part of the history of urban planning. Throughout the development process of the "Land Regulations" in the East Asian British Concession, the formulation of its management model mainly experienced the following stages: 1. The upper-level policy's guidance and control of the overall direction; 2. The optimization of the organizational framework and operation mode; 3. Establish and improve laws and regulations to legalize them; 4. Clarify the main body of the plan, and the people will participate in the formulation process.